Fathom’s Insight

List of Enhancement Tasks for Existing Pages of a Website

In the here and now (May 2007) traditional search engine optimization is rather limited on actual optimization tasks. We generally denote these practices as On-page Optimization which constitutes most any enhancement task completed on the current pages of a website domain being optimized.

For the sake of argument you don’t need to optimize anything today to rank better. As a matter-of-fact you don’t even need to look or review the website to be able to rank significantly better than before or even #1 for your most competitive term.

This post and the subsequent ones that will follow are a complete end-to-end optimization strategy to rank #1 in three (3) months or less.

But before we get to “what works” let’s briefly cover those things that are an absolutely a waste of your efforts since they add absolutely zero enhancement value to better ranks in any search engine.

What Doesn’t Help in any Meaningful Way

Meta Tags

Meta Tags allowed authors to specify machine-readable metadata about their HTML documents and other network-accessible resources. At one time search engines used this machine-readable metadata to aid in categorizing and organizing web pages of similar topics. This then became one of the SEO optimization tasks — to ensure a client’s web site pages each provided a set of Meta Tags that enhanced the chances of its client to be organized higher in the search engine’s categorization processes.

Meta Description

<meta content=”Your page description here.” http-equiv=”Description” />

At one time Meta Description had some empirical value for ranking in search engines. Today this is token optimization. Even when considering the most obscure search phrases that do offer viable visitation from potential customers a Meta Description will no more aid you to a better ranked position than blowing with the wind (in a sail boat) and accepting that your effort actually had some impact to increasing your sailboat’s speed – it doesn’t… nor does Meta Description.

In a controlled environment I’m sure that someone can show an impact does occur but in practical application it is merely wishful thinking. It’s important to realize that the information contained in the Meta Description is used by search engines as contextual information for the page but is not used as ranking criteria in any meaningful capacity.

Others argue that while Meta Description does not aid to better ranks it does allow you to control what search engines display as a description for your web pages and an appealing description is better for producing clicks.

However, it’s only effective when the term being searched for is included in your Meta Description. This then is a major concern since most web pages rank well for a volume of different terms. While your Meta Description may target the most often used terms it is a fact that terms generally considered much longer and more obscure are often far more likely to produce a sale.

Therefore the benefits of more appealing descriptions tend to go to those searchers that are far less likely to desire anything specific from you and at the expense of those searchers that desire the most from you.

Using this article as an example of a page a Meta Description (if used) might be “List of on page optimization techniques. Features practice guidance of do and don’t tips for better ranks.”

This page could however rank for the terms of Meta Tags or Meta Description yet because the Meta Description doesn’t contain these terms the page content itself is snippet in these instances.

Without any understanding of how the search engine snippet page content or how to actually make these snippets more appealing over 55% of all search engine users that receive a description for this page (and page) will receive “un-optimized content”.

How then can one truly call themselves an optimizer “if” they are suck on the premise of using Meta Description as part of their repertoire so they don’t need to optimize page content?

Meta Keyword

<meta content=”Your page related keywords here.” http-equiv=”Keywords” />

Meta Keyword is worthless to ranking enhancement and has been for quite some time. While some optimizers suggest adding Meta Keyword so you can easily track your targeted phrases this again is pointless as 55% of all traffic to a web site is based on queries that are 4- or 5-word phrases or more.

Statistically speaking it is a common occurrence that a 100-page, content rich website will rank easily for 10,000 separate phrases or an approximate 100 different phrases per page. The fact that phrase for phrase the longer the phrase in words the better or easier the sale potential is suggests that no one is really interested in keeping track of targeted phrases.

Meta Robots

<meta name=”Robots” content=”index, follow” />

Meta Robots are categorically not needed on a web page unless that page is not to be included in search engines or the author does not wish search engines to follow the links on the page.

The common uses of index, follow, or all are deprecated since search engines do that anyway.

Meta Revisit-After

<meta name=”Revisit-After” content=”X Days” />

Meta Revisit has deprecated.

While a vast assortment of other Meta Tags exists the previously mentioned ones were historically the only ones that were used for “optimizing” a web page.

Today, there is absolutely no optimizing value in any Meta Tag.

Alt Text

<img src=”image.gif” mce_src=”image.gif” alt=”related keywords” /> 

Optimizing image Alternative Text - Alt=”related keywords” was a worthwhile effort at one time. While there is still optimization value for navigational links that use images rather than text links, the inherent “enhancement” associated with Alternative Text optimization is pretty much worthless for better ranks.

It is worth mentioning that the appeal of image link can still be available with text links using CSS controlled mouseovers – thus there is really no good reason to use image links (this is also true for display ads).

Comment Tags

 <!– Keywords here –>

Comment Tags at one time did have some influence in ranks and may (like Meta Description) in a semi-controlled environment show as a ranking value but in practical application there is no value for any meaningful traffic oriented results. Search engines will often use comment tags for relevant contextual information of a page but seem does not suggest any value for ranking criteria in any meaningful way.

Keyword Density

Many people waste vast quantities of time measuring the density of the keyphrase (e.g. Keyword Density) being ranked on a specific page. Some even say a certain percent of keyword repetitiveness is invaluable to ranking better and once you reach that percentage any additional use of the phrase “decreases ranks”… I really like someone to actually show me the empirical evidence for this one.

Keyword Density offers no inherent value to better ranks beyond the common use of text on a page (on all pages).

It’s worth mention that the use of hidden text (e.g. commonly denoted as text that is the same color as the background color of the page adds no value to ranking a page. Regardless of the inherently “shady trick” being deployed the practice is based on the assumption that higher keyword density means higher ranks. Since no one can categorically prove that any percentage of repeated text is better than any other percentage of repeated text the need to “hide” because you don’t wish visitors to see something that has no value to them, because there is no value to be bettered ranked in any search engine - what’s the point of use?

Title Attribute

The title attribute title=”terms here” I actually like to use but it has no ranking enhancement value what-so-ever. The pop-up tool tip is more for demonstrating (an example only) what can be found on the next page if used in the link to that page.

Bold or Strong

While there is some empirical evidence that supports the use of bold or strong inherently that value amount is minimal.

I professionally use the following criteria to determine “if” I will use a specific technique in the capacity of optimizing a web page…

“If it can make a difference in the top 30 results positions of at least 100 potential returns then it is worthy of being an optimization technique.”

“If you need to create results where there is none so you can determine any value what-so-ever the technique is worthless for practical application in optimization.”

Sometime ever little bit “hurts” more than it helps.

Video and multimedia collection of Eco-Nova Productions, a Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada producer for History Television. Features interactive wreck map, discussion bulletin board, online merchandise, student resources, and live feeds from current archaeological project.

Fig 1.2 Shipwreck Central’s Underwater Video Archive (Click to view)

Eco-Nova Productions dive teams have been traveling the planet searching for and filming shipwreck sites for over a decade. Such documentaries for shipwreck investigations that you might otherwise not see are exclusively seen on National Geographic, and History Televison.

Working with world renowned author, Clive Cussler, marine archaeologist and author, James Delgado, the Sea Hunters dive team, headed up by Mike and Warren Fletcher, take viewers on searches for some of the worlds most famous shipwrecks.

Shipwreck Central’s Web Interactive archive allows you travel to the ocean’s depths as the Sea Hunters build their shipwreck record.

Luxury accommodations reside at the bottom of the sea by Rennay Craats.

Water resorts are nothing new. Cruise ships carry thousands of people to exotic destinations aboard their luxurious decks. Countless hotels and resorts have been built on the shores of some of the most beautiful beaches in the world. But now travelers can take it a step further, or more accurately a step deeper. Poseidon Undersea Resort will allow guests to enjoy incredible accommodations between 35 and 60 feet under the water’s surface.

Such an ambitious undertaking has been years in the making and now construction is set to begin mid-year off the shores of a 235-acre private island in Fiji. “It’s never been done before, which is sort of amazing,” says Poseidon Undersea Resorts president L. Bruce Jones. “There hasn’t been a single one-atmosphere undersea resort built.” He and the design, construction and installation branch Poseidon Engineering are eager to change that. The revolutionary resort will consist of two parts: one is underwater and the other is along the shoreline. The twenty underwater suites will be opulent and incredible, using only the finest fixtures, wood, and fabrics. Guests can enjoy rooms ranging from 550 to 1,600 square feet, in which they can lounge and watch fish swim by the transparent acrylic walls and even feed them using an external fish feeder installed outside each suite. The panoramic views are breathtaking, but privacy is protected using a reflective film to prevent others from seeing into the suite through the day, and at night guests can choose to opaque sections of the viewports to increase privacy.

For those guests looking for an even more spectacular stay, the Poseidon’s Lair will make for an unforgettable vacation. This private suite brings luxury and extravagance to a new level, with this two-bedroom underwater bungalow accessed only by a submersible. This $20,000 feature includes a private submarine captain and butler. The rest of the resort consists of a library-conference room as well as a revolving restaurant and bar that will boast five-star cuisine and unbeatable ambience.

While underwater living is fascinating and exciting, guests are not restricted in the least. They can take the elevator to a pier and walk to shore to enjoy the amenities available on land. Underwater rooms are likely to run about $1800 per night, but guests can pepper their stay with fantastic on-shore accommodations to make their vacation more affordable. The shore resort, which is currently 80 percent complete, features twenty individual bungalows with private splash pools, ponds in the entrance area, outdoor showers, and Jacuzzi tubs. “It’s five-star-plus accommodations,” says Jones. In addition, guests can make use of the posh restaurant and bar, health club, and high-end spa facilities along with the executive nine-hole golf course. Resort guests onshore can also access the restaurant and other underwater facilities.

The resort is incredible but the natural splendour of the area is appealing as well. “The island is surrounded by a magnificent lagoon, which is about 7.8 square miles,” says Jones. Guests can enjoy the underwater life via deep submersible tours to nearby coral reefs and walls as well as SCUBA explorations around the resort. To ensure this will always be the case, the developers have taken pains to guarantee the resort doesn’t have a negative affect on the coral reefs and marine life in the area.

Fig 1.1 Poseidon Undersea Resorts (Click to view)

I have always been fascinated by the beamforming abilities of passive acoustics towed systems. Hundreds of proverbial microphones singlarly detecting sounds from a finite direction — collectively building the big picture for human interpretation.

Originally trained in these system in the Royal Navy, United Kingdom I was equally amazed at how rapidly my peers to visualize the environment around them… while seemingly “best guess” such guesses were almost alway accurate. Since I firmly believe, “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, therefore, is not an act, but a habit”, I put to habit that which my peers possessed.

On returning to Canada, I had the privilege of working with an experimental towed array system called Experiemental Submarine Integrated Sonar System (ESISS) that was to be be trialed first on the Acoustic Research Ship CFAV (Canadian Forces Auxiliary Vessel) Quest, and then HMCS/m Onondaga. While only an experimental system it was (in my honest opinion) a truly revolutionary approach to passive acoustics.

Fig 1.1 Towed Array Passive Acoustics - Towed Integrated Active-Passive Sonar

Today, TIAPS is the “new thing”.

Each year 130 million North American’s visit aquadic theme parks such as SeaWorld and Marineland plus hundreds of public aquariums. 6 million are certified recreational divers, and in the late srepng and summer month 2 million takes charter cruises for a chance encounter and glimpse at the largest mammals on our watery planet.

Under the ocean’s waves there is 5 times the biodiversity as above it… and with three quarters of the earth covered by water — there is little mystery why we are all fascinated by the subsea world.

Whether naturally forming by maritime disasters or intentional sinking mankind assists in the creating artificial  reefs that attract prey and predator making life out of death… in the depths of darkness comes flashes of brilliance ans wonder.

From the dry security of a subsea vessel – vivid imagination! 

Fig 1.1 Submarine tours throughout the world.

In submarines I preferred the back-watch (1am - 7am) particularly if dived in deeper waters. As an acoustics specialist with a good appreciation underwater sound interpretation I could easily identify most sounds produced by North Atlantic Ocean marine life with specific fondness to whales.

As both Humpback and Right Whales routinely populate Nova Scotian waters - I became accustom to hearing their songs whether close in or from hundreds of miles away.

While I don’t get much of a chance anymore to listen to any marine life in real life - WhaleSounds.com has numerous short recordings and a few 5-10 minute songs.

Fig 1.1 Whale Sounds (Click to listen).
Image Copyright © Andrew Woodburn

Sable Island, approximately 300 km east-south-east of Halifax, Nova Scotia, is a remote offshore sandbar perched on the edge of the Scotian Shelf (the continental shelf south of Nova Scotia in the Atlantic Ocean). Over the past 300 year 400+ ships have become victims to the island shoal where the waters surrounding Sable Island are scattered with their remains. In reflection of this Sable Island is commonly called “the Graveyard of the Atlantic”.

Fig 1.1 Map of shipwrecks surrounding Sable Island (Click to view).

For many sailors, this sandy island hidden by waves, storms and fog meant death and destruction. Since 1583 there have been over 400 recorded shipwrecks on Sable Island. While the number of shipwrecks has decreased with the development of modern navigational aids, but the island and it’s shoals continues to provide a hazard to shipping. The last vessel wrecked on the island was on July 27, 1999, the small yacht Merrimac.

Until recently, sextants were the instruments used to figure out a ship’s position. Sextants are accurate, but they worked by taking a sighting from the sun or stars. They were useless in dense fog or under cloudy skies.

In bad weather, the Captain navigated by “dead reckoning”- using ship speed and direction to estimate his position. But even in good conditions this was educated guessing. Currents and storms confused the calculations of the best skippers.

Many accounts of ships wrecked on Sable report that the Captain simply lost his way - he had misjudged his ship’s position and bumped into Sable Island by mistake.

After World War II radar and other advanced navigation equipment became widely used on merchant and fishing ships. Sable ceased to be a major threat to shipping.

To demonstrate one manufacturer’s approach to meeting the constraints and requirements of submersible diving, Lockheed Missiles and Space Corporation’s DEEP QUEST system will be examined (Fig. 2.4a). DEEP QUEST is not necessarily the most successful approach, but its 8,000-ft operational depth capability and support systems confront and offer solutions to the majority of problems encountered. (The following data was attained from refs. 7 through 11.)

Fig. 2.4 a) The submersible system DEEP QUEST (LMSC)

Environmental Constraints

Pressure

The manned compartment (pressure hull of DEEP QUEST ) consists of two intersecting spheres welded together with a 20-inch-diameter opening between the two and a 20-inch- diameter opening (hatch) atop the aft sphere. The spheres are 7 feet in outside diameter (OD), 0.895 inch thick, and are composed of 18 percent nickel, 200-KSI-grade maraging steel. A weldment of four hemi-heads and interconnecting “Y” rings form the basic structure. A collapse depth of 13,000 feet (5,772 psi) provides a safety factor of 1.6 at its operating depth of 8,000 feet (3,554 psi). DEEP QUEST has been designed to incorporate a diver lock-out compartment and a transfer bell as shown in Figure 2.4b, but these are not affixed to the submersible at present.

Seawater (Corrosion Protection)

To protect the fairings and foundations, piping, variable ballast tanks, high pressure air tanks, and electrical inverter/controllers, a multi-coat polyurethane Laminar X-500 finish has been applied. The pressure hull is isolated from contact with the aluminum outer hull by mounting it on rubber pads and clamping it down with a phenolic collar. It is further protected by a mild steel anode system. Whenever possible, dissimilar metals are electrically isolated by non-conductive mountings. Small zone anodes are utilized freely to protect against electrolysis.

Fig 2.4 b) Schematic of DEEP QUEST as designed with potential diver lockout compartment and transfer bell. (LMSC)

Temperature

To control the pressure hull’s internal temperature there are two temperature sensors in each of the two spheres which activate an electrical damping system to apportion air through three heat exchangers. Excess heat (from personnel and operation of electrical equipment) is conducted through the hull wall. Electrically powered heating strips supply additional heat if that produced by equipment operation is insufficient. Toughness (crack arrest) of the pressure hull’s maraging steel was improved by careful modification of the chemical composition of the steel.

Light

To provide external lighting at depth, DEEP QUEST has nine fixed lights ranging in power from 500 to 2,500 watts; these may be individually controlled. On each of the two television pan and tilt mechanisms is a 500-watt flood light for trainable illumination.

Currents

To counter adverse currents, in addition to maneuvering, DEEP QUEST may employ two 7.5-hp, stern-mounted axial thrusters and one 7.5-hp lateral water-jet bow thrusters.

Density

A steel shot (1,900 lb dry weight) releasable ballast system is used to adjust for minor seawater density changes. DEEP QUEST normally operates submerged in a slightly heavy (negative buoyancy) condition, taking advantage of her lifting body outer hull configuration and vertical thrusters.

Acoustics

To minimize the effects of sound refraction, the submersible’s support ship TRANSQUEST attempts to maintain a position nearly above DEEP QUEST during the dive. Two 27-kHz acoustic pingers are affixed to the submersible; one is omnidirectional and one is vertically oriented by a parabolic reflector. A directional hydroplane antenna on TRANSQUEST provides the relative bearing to DEEP QUEST and a modification to the submersible’s underwater telephone (UQC) provides range information on a digital readout.

Sea State

TRANSQUEST’s launch/retrieval system (see Chap. 12), a hydraulically-powered elevator platform mounted in the open-stern-well, is marginally effective at sea state 4 in short period waves, optimizing at longer period swells.

Bottom Conditions

DEEP QUEST’s outer hull is streamlined and rugged. Two skids on the bottom of the vehicle protect it against damage and hold it high enough off the bottom to inhibit the possibility of accidentally taking aboard sediment. Object avoidance/search sonar provides for full-scale range indications from 15 to 1,500 yards.

Vehicle Performance

Viewing

For direct viewing, DEEP QUEST incorporates two viewports: one in the forward hull looks down and forward; one in the aft hull looks directly down through a hatch located on the bottom of the aft hull. The aft viewport is equipped with an optical remote viewing system incorporating an external “fish-eye” lens. Augmenting the viewports are two (port/starboard) pan- and tilt-mounted TV cameras; one bow-mounted TV camera, and one sail-mounted, 360-degree-vision, periscope-scanning, TV camera, and a fifth camera mounted as desired to observe a particular area or equipment for the specific dive.

Buoyancy

Four ballasting/buoyancy components are incorporated in DEEP QUEST (Fig. 2.5): 1) A Main Ballast System, consisting of two forward and two after tanks (port/starboard), provides 12 percent reserve buoyancy on the surface and is blown free of water by compressed air; 2) a Shot Ballast System, consisting of 1,900 pounds (wet) of steel shot in two cylindrical hoppers mounted outboard in the longitudinal C.G. plane provides “fail safe” ballast which is electromagnetically held and dropped in the event of a total power loss or metered out as desired; 3) 34,000 pounds of syntactic foam (36-pcf ave. density) neutralizes negative buoyancy of fixed structure and equipment; and 4) movable lead ballast (26-lb bricks), up to 3,000 pounds, provides the means of adjusting trim and weight as calculated prior to each dive.

Trim

The longitudinal moment (trim) of DEEP QUEST can be changed 30 degrees up or down during the dive by pumping oil from one to another of two, 18-inch-diameter, pressure-compensated, spherical tanks located fore and aft; each tank is initially half filled with 720 pounds of mercury which are separated from the oil by a rubber diaphragm and forced forward or aft by the pumped oil. A further refinement on DEEP QUEST is a port/starboard list tank system which changes the roll or transverse moment (+ or - 10 degrees) of the vehicle in a fashion similar to the trim system.

Stability

The surfaced metacentric height (GM) of DEEP QUEST is 12 inches; the submerged metacentric height (BG) is 3 inches. The short BG requires that careful consideration be given to attachment location and weight

Power

Main power is supplied by two, 120-VDC, pressure-compensated, lead-acid batteries supplying a total of 230 kWh which enable the vehicle to cruise at a speed of 2 knots for 18 hours. For scientific or other work instruments the following is available:

Fig. 2.5a. DEEP QUEST’s dynamic maneuvering ability.

Fig. 2.5b. DEEP QUEST’s static maneuvering ability.

120 VDC (nominal)

29 VDC + or - 2%

115 VAC rms + or - 2.5V, 60 Hz, single phase

115 VAC rms + or - 2% , 400 Hz, single phase

Two independent 28-VDC, silver-zinc batteries within the pressure hull provide 3.6 kWh of emergency power.

Maneuverability

The axial, vertical, and lateral propulsive units, as described in Figure 2.5, in conjunction with stern planes and a rudder, provide five degrees of freedom (pitch, roll, heave, yaw, surge) and a dynamic maneuvering capability through the speed range of 0 to 3.5 knots. Static roll and pitch rotational moments are applied by weight transfer in the trim and list systems. An automatic pilot (course, speed and pitch angle) and an automatic depth control are additional control adjuncts.

External Attachments

DEEP QUEST offers several areas for attachment of instruments, and a jettisonable, steel framework or “brow” may be attached on the bow to carry a variety of instruments including a 700-pound coring device or a 1,500-pound reel of line. Abaft the pressure hull is an enclosed area within the fairing of approximately 385 cubic feet; this area may be used to accommodate instruments or tools of widely varying dimensions and weights. In the event that these areas are not desirable or usable, it is possible to attach instruments to the top of the vehicle by bolting down “Unistrut” configurations as desired. (Fig. 2.6). Within the after pressure sphere two 19-inch-wide, 59-inch-high, standard electronics racks are available for installation of equipment; within the entire pressure hull approximately 20 cubic feet of space are available for additional equipment. Electrical penetrations through the pressure hull are provided for additional equipment; these consist of twenty-six, 2-wire (No. 18) AWG circuits and four, 2-wire (No. 16) AWG circuits. Extra leads can be made available by alternate substitution means.

Fig. 2.6. “Unistrut” instrument attachment to DEEP QUEST’s fairing. (NAVOCEANC)

Lock-out/Lock-in

A 25-inch-diameter door on the after pressure sphere is configured to join with a “man-in-sea” module to provide diver lock-out/lock-in facilities for at least two divers. The module, when installed, will occupy the enclosed area now available for additional instrumentation. A transfer bell may be attached to the bottom hatch of the pressure sphere for transferring personnel to or from manned undersea stations at atmospheric pressure or to rescue personnel from disabled submarines configured to accommodate the transfer bell.

Payload

In excess of 2,000 pounds (wet weight) may be carried within the diver module area. A total of 7,000 pounds may be accommodated by relocation of buoyancy (syntactic foam) material.

Human Considerations

Respiration

Oxygen is carried within the pressure hull in four bottles (0.37 ft ? each at 2,250 psi), two of which are spares. Oxygen is automatically bled into the cabin by a solenoid-actuated differential pressure control switch maintaining cabin pressure at 2 inches of water above a 1-atmosphere reference chamber. Carbon dioxide and other contaminants are removed by blowing a portion of the circulated air through lithium hydroxide/activated charcoal cannisters. An emergency blower is available for backup contaminant removal. Cabin pressure is monitored and displayed on a gage in the forward sphere. Oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures are detected by sensors and displayed; a red light alarm is activated when these pressures are beyond allowable limits (02: 140 to 180 mm Hg; CO2: 8 mm Hg max.). A Mine Safety Appliance universal kit is carried to identify trace contaminants.

Temperature/Humidity

With seawater temperature between 28 degrees and 55 degrees, cabin temperature is controlled, as explained previously, at 70 degrees + or - 10 degrees F. Relative humidity is maintained at 60% + or - 20% by condensation of moisture in the heat exchangers. All parts of the pressure hull’s interior, with the exceptions of the heat exchange portion and hatches, are covered with 5/8-inch-thick polyvinyl chloride (Ensolite) insulation.

Food/Water

Normal diving food rations consist of sandwiches and other foods prepared daily prior to each dive. Emergency dehydrated food is carried to sustain four people for 48 hours. Water is carried in plastic containers.

Waste-Management

Wide-mouth plastic jars enclosing vinyl bags are carried for collection and storage of liquid and solid wastes. Wescodyne germicide is used as a stabilizing agent and activated charcoal for odor control. A folding camp-type toilet seat with plastic waste bag is carried.

Fatigue

Pilot and co-pilot are provided with cushioned seats in the forward sphere. No permanent facilities are provided for the two observers other than a foam-rubber cushion located on the deck between the pilot and co-pilot upon which the observer may lie to use the forward-looking viewport. The dimensions of the pressure hull are sufficient to provide headroom for standing and stretching.

Emergency Procedures

Entanglement

DEEP QUEST’s streamlined fairings present minimal entanglement potential. Its manipulators, pan and tilt mechanisms and forward instrument brow are jettisonable. All propellers are shrouded and screened to prevent entanglement with rope or wire.

Power Loss

An emergency power source is carried inside the pressure hull on each dive. In the event of a total power (normal and emergency) loss the steel shot is automatically dumped. Emergency power can be used to operate jettisoning circuits, underwater telephone, radio, and life support equipment.

Fire and Noxious Gasses

An emergency breathing system for four people is carried which consists of four full-face masks coupled to a common rechargeable LiOH/charcoal cannister and oxygen supply with a breathing bag which acts as an accumulator. A pressure of 1.5 inches of water above cabin ambient pressure is maintained in the emergency system to prevent contaminated air from entering. The system provides a total of 3 hours for each person. Two 2.5-pound CO2 fire extinguishers are carried at all times. When a fifth person is carried, an OBA (Oxygen Breathing Apparatus) is added.

Deballasting Loss

In the event that normal ballasting methods and power are lost, the following may be dropped to gain positive buoyancy as indicated:

Fig. 2.7 DEEP QUEST’s jettisonable components.

Not included above are the jettisonable mechanical arms and brow and breakaway pan and tilt mechanisms (Fig. 2.7).

Tracking Loss

If DEEP QUEST becomes separated from TRANSQUEST, it has several options while on the surface for communication and location. A radio direction finder on the support ship may home in on a 2182-kHz voice transmitter, or a Coast Guard aircraft may home on a 121.5-MHz signal transmitted from a self-powered, omnidirectional emergency beacon aboard the submersible. A transducer affixed to the bottom of the submersible allows for UQC communication when surfaced. A floodable sail over DEEP QUEST’s top hatch allows for opening of the hatch in inclement weather to flush out cabin air if required. Surface viewing capability without opening the hatch is obtained through use of the sail-mounted television periscope. DEEP QUEST’s international orange sail and rudder provide excellent contrast against all spectrums of water color. A pressure-switch actuated, sail-mounted, flashing xenon light is provided for nighttime visual location.

Support Requirements

Transportation

As it is one of the larger deep submersibles, DEEP QUEST is normally considered only sea transportable. However, with the sail and stern planes removed, DEEP QUEST could be air (C-141) and land (tractor, trailer, rail) transportable. At its home port, San Diego, a marine railway is available to transport it in and out of its shop.

Support Platform

The Motor Vessel TRANSQUEST (see Table 12.2 for specifications) was specifically designed to support DEEP QUEST in extended open-sea operations, but it is somewhat limited by its size (108 ft) and speed (6.2 knots max.).

Launch/Retrieval Apparatus

(See sea state above.)

Tracking and Navigation

Tracking of DEEP QUEST was outlined under Acoustics above and is utilized to vector DEEP QUEST to desired locations as well as to track her movements. Three systems are available aboard DEEP QUEST for navigation independent of the surface (Fig. 2.8). The first system consists of a gyrocompass (providing heading azimuth which is further corrected to true heading by a vertical reference gyro and the navigation computer), a Doppler sonar log (provides vehicle speed relative to the bottom), and an analog computer which processes the direction and speed information and plots the vehicle’s course on an x-y plotter, as well as presenting the information to a data recorder. The second system uses gyrocompass or remote reading magnetic compass (Magnesyn) heading and flowmeter speed (or odometer distance) through the water to obtain a manual navigational track. A third system utilizes the laterally-trainable Straza Model 500 CTFM sonar mounted on the sail which transmits and receives sonar signals and generates both audio and visual outputs in the pressure hull and, in addition, provides a cathode ray tube with digital readout of range to a target. Using fixed bottom objects as landmarks or range and bearing of transponders placed on the sea floor, DEEP QUEST can employ the CTFM to obtain a plot of its progress relative to them. By using a down-looking depth sounder/strip chart recorder and upward-looking depth sounder in conjunction with the CTFM and transponders, accurate post-dive navigational charts may be constructed. 

Fig. 2.8a DEEP QUEST’s navigational components. Underside View

Fig. 2.8 DEEP QUEST’s navigational components.

The DEEP QUEST submersible system is one of the most sophisticated in existence and was designed to accomplish such diverse tasks as research, surveying, engineering, search and retrieval, diver support and rescue. Relative to the shallower diving submersibles, it may appear unduly complex. Undoubtedly, one can do without a great number of DEEP QUEST’s capabilities if the operational tasks are merely for viewing and simple work functions. The trade-offs are obvious: The simpler the submersible, the simpler the tasks it may perform. Nonetheless, the basic design and operational aspects outlined above must be confronted and solved by all submersibles to varying degrees; where one or several of these functions have been slighted — and no submersible is without fault — the weakness is apparent.

A common weakness, undoubtedly the most crucial obstacle to wide-scale submersible employment, resides in the operational concepts. Possibly influenced by independently-operating, self-sufficient military submarines, submersible architects have tended to overlook or underestimate the critical role played by surface craft in supporting extended open-sea operations. In the formative years, the many technical problems of deep submergence overshadowed this surface dependency, but, once they were solved and submersibles routinely dived without crippling malfunctions, inadequacies of surface support came into proper perspective and still plague vehicle owners. Future submersible designers must, if they hope to achieve more effective diving records, be cognizant of the fact that small, maneuverable, battery-powered vehicles are inextricably bound to their surface support platform for safety, sustenance and operational efficiency.

 REFERENCES

1. King, D. A. 1969 Basic hydrodynamics. in Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, p. 2-1 thru 2-32.

2. Warren, W. F. 1961 Seawater Density in the Ocean as a Function of Depth and a Method of Utilizing this Information in the Design of Pressure Vessels Which Will Remain in a Constant Depth Range Between the Surface and Bottom. Naval Ord. Lab. NOLTR 61-179, AD 273634.

3. McQuaid, R. W. and Brown, C. L. 1972 Handbook of Fluids and Lubricants for Deep Ocean Applications. Naval Ship Research and Development Lab., Annapolis, Md., Rept. MATLAB 360, 249 pp.

 4. Busby, R. F. 1967 Undersea penetration by ambient light and visibility. Science, v. 158, n. 3805, p. 1178-1180.

5. Encyclopedia of Oceanography 1966 Encyclopedia of Earth Science Series, v. 1, edited by R. W. Fairbridge, Reinhold Pub. Corp., New York.

6. Personal Communication with A. Markel, Reynolds Submarine Services, Inc., Miami, Florida.

7. Lockheed Missiles and Space Corp. 1967 DEEP QUEST Summary Description. LMSC No. 5-13-67-3, Sunnyvale, California.

8. ________, 1968 Lockheed DEEP QUEST Submersible System. LMSC/DO80197, Revision B, Sunnyvale, California.

9. ________, DEEP QUEST Research Submarine. LMSC/DO15168 (unpub. Manuscript).

10. ________, DEEP QUEST – The Versatile Submarine. Ocean System Marketing (Sales Brochure), Sunnyvale, California.

11. Shumaker, L. A. 1972 New Developments in Deep Submersible Operations (unpub. manuscript).

TRANSPORTATION

Weight and size are the factors controlling a submersible’s transport and, hence, mobility. Land, sea and air transportation are possible; but, for some vehicles, this means dismantling major components. Deployment at the site of embarkation requires lift and possible rail facilities not available at many ports.

SUPPORT PLATFORM

There are few, if any, occasions when a submersible will not require a support platform. At the very least, this platform will be required to tow the vehicle to the dive site and track it while submerged. In open-sea operations, the platform will act to maintain the vehicle, house its support and scientific crew, and perform work tasks in conjunction with the submersible. Proper selection of such a platform is critical to the effectiveness of the submersible system.

LAUNCH/RETRIEVAL APPARATUS

Unless the submersible is too large for launch/retrieval at sea, an apparatus is required to deploy and retrieve it after each dive. Four basic methods may be utilized. One is a device to attach to and lift the vehicle out of the water, such as a crane. The second involves deballasting a submersible platform onto which the submersible is maneuvered. Third is the mechanical hoisting of an elevator platform attached to a surface vessel. A fourth approach involves the mother submarine concept in which the submersible is launched or retrieved and transported by a completely submerged platform. In the event of external repairs or maintenance to the submersible, the mother submarine may be required to surface.

may be an  in situ  navigation network by which the vehicle itself maintains a real-time display and record of its underwater position.

ENTANGLEMENT

To minimize the fouling potential with foreign objects such as wreckage, cables, or ropes, submersibles should have smooth, streamlined exterior surfaces, and objects extending beyond the fairing should be kept to a minimum. When possible, objects that offer a potential for fouling should be jettisonable.

Power Loss

In the event of a complete electrical power loss, the vehicle should have mechanical means of surfacing either by jettisoning components, dropping extra ballast, or blowing water ballast. An emergency power supply to operate critical emergency components should be considered.

FIRE AND NOXIOUS GASES

Emergency breathing apparatus and fire extinguishers within the pressure hull are required in the event of fire and release of noxious or toxic gases. Noninflammable wiring insulation should be used for all power cables and control wiring. Only insulation, paint, plastics, and other materials free of detrimental outgassing should be used inside manned spaces.

DEBALLASTING LOSS

A number of vehicles contain backup deballasting procedures in the event that the normal deballasting does not function or is insufficient. These include jettisoning of batteries, instruments, manipulators, or trim liquids (mercury). Where depth allows, many vehicles may be flooded by ambient seawater or pressurized by compressed air to open the hatch for emergency exit. In a few cases, the entire positively buoyant pressure hull can be manually released from the remainder of the vehicle, whence it will free float to the surface.

TRACKING LOSS

Owing to inaccuracies in tracking procedures or accidental loss of acoustic contact, a submersible may surface out of contact with its support ship and be completely on its own. Emergency signaling devices and radios are required. Some vehicles have such low freeboard that to open the hatch in anything higher than sea state 1 could swamp the pressure hull. In this case, emergency flares might be impossible to employ, and if a long period of time must be spent with the hatch closed awaiting outside assistance, the endurance of the emergency life support system to sustain the passengers could be exceeded. The color of the submersible might also be critical to visual sighting. A white submersible, with only 1 or 2 feet of its conning tower or sail protruding above the surface and posed against a background of whitecaps, is extremely difficult to see. Furthermore, radar may be ineffective owing to the sail being masked by sea return.

RESPIRATION

Oxygen must be supplied, and carbon dioxide must be removed for the duration (6-12hr) of a normal dive and for an extended period in the event of an emergency. Monitoring devices must be included to maintain proper levels and to check for the presence of contaminants. In the event of diver support, storage and supply of air or mixed gas (e.g., helium/oxygen) must be accommodated.

TEMPERATURE/HUMIDITY

In shallow tropical dives, temperatures (F) and relative humidity (%) reach into the 90’s; with depth, or in the high latitudes, the temperature can fall into the 40’s with a corresponding humidity decrease. Both these extremes bear heavily on human performance and must be dealt with successfully. Deep diving in the tropics can combine both extremes and includes condensation on the interior walls of the hull with consequent drippage; this can be detrimental to equipment as well as to human occupants.

FOOD/WATER

Normal and emergency food and water rations must be carried; limited power or the possibility of its entire loss restricts the type of food and preparation possible.

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Means must be provided to accommodate metabolic wastes and to treat and store such wastes for the duration of the dive.

FATIGUE

The internal arrangements for pilot and passenger(s) must be such that the efficiency of both is not decreased by uncomfortable or awkward layout of instruments and controls. Similarly, long periods at the viewports can be extremely taxing and detrimental to the mission if pilot or observer is forced into awkward positions to view or work

This is the electronic version of Frank R. Busby’s Manned Submersibles. This work is a tribute to Busby himself and to Douglas R. Farrow, the gentleman that has found “the lost Busby’s”.

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

Front cover

Dedication

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION

Manned Submersibles Defined

A field in Flux

Vehicle Status

Terminology and Units

General and Specific Publications of Interest

Soviet Bloc Submersibles

The “Manned” Aspects of Submersibles

2. DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Environmental Constraints

Vehicle Performance Requirements

Human Considerations

Emergency Procedures

Support Requirements

The DEEP QUEST Submersible System

3. CONTEMPORARY SUBMERSIBLE DEVELOPMENT

Bathysphere to Bathyscaph

Pre - and Post - THRESHER

Oceanographic Climate of the Mid - Sixties

Vehicles for Any Occasion

A More Conservative Approach - The 1970’s

4. MANNED SUBMERSIBLES: 1948 - 1974 

Dimensional / Performance Terms

Components / Sub-Systems Terms

Submersibles Described

[ Index of submersibles ]

5. PRESSURE HULLS AND EXOSTRUCTURES 

Pressure Hulls

Shapes

Materials

Fabrication

Hull Penetrations

External Structures

Exostructures

Fairings

Pressure Testing

Pressure Test Facilities

Pressure Hull Measurements and Tests

Corrosion and Its Control

6. BALLASTING AND TRIM SYSTEMS

Weight and Volume Estimates

Compressed Air and Deballasting

Ballasting Systems

Trim Systems

7. POWER AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 

Manual Power

Pneumatic Power

Electric Power

Batteries

Fuel Cells

Nuclear Power

Cable-To-Surface

Diesel-Electric

Power Distribution

Penetrators

Connectors

Cables

Junction Boxes

Interference

8. MANEUVERABILITY AND CONTROL 

Propulsion

Maneuvering

Motors

Drag Forces

Propulsion Power Requirements

Control Devices

9. LIFE SUPPORT AND HABITABILITY

Life Support

Life SupportReplenishment

Removal

Control

Monitoring

Philosophical Approach

K-250

BEN FRANKLIN

Habitability

Psychological Aspects

10. OPERATIONAL EQUIPMENTS, NAVIGATION, MANIPULATORS 

Equipment

Environmental

Depth

Speed

Pitch / Roll

Communications

Navigation

Surface Tracking

Submerged Navigation

Homing

Manipulators

Power

Design / Capabilities

Claws

Control

11. SCIENTIFIC AND WORK EQUIPMENT 

Constraints on Submersible Instruments

Survey Instruments

Research Instruments

Engineering / Inspection / Salvage

12. SEA AND SHORE SUPPORT

Transportation

Support Platforms

Launch / Retrieval Methods

In Use

Conceptual

Lift Hooks

Towing

Personnel and Shore Facilities

13. CERTIFICATION, CLASSIFICATION, REQUIREMENTS

Potential Hazards

System Hazards

Material and Subsystems Failures

Instruments Failures

Operator Failures

Launch / Retrieval Failures

Environmental Hazards

Natural

Man-Made

U.S. Navy Certification

Material Adequacy

Operator Competency

Operational Safety

American Bureau of Shipping Classification

U.S. Coast Guard Requirements

Search and Rescue Responsibility

MARSAP

Insurance

14. EMERGENCY DEVICES AND PROCEDURES

Emergency Avoidance Systems

Emergency Corrective Systems (Submerged)

Emergency Systems (Surfaced)

Devices to Assist Underwater Rescue

15. EMERGENCY INCIDENTS AND THE POTENTIAL FOR RESCUE

Incidents

Rescue Potential - Underwater Transfer

DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESCUE VEHICLES

Submarine Rescue Chamber

Rescue Potential - Retrieval

Ambient Divers

Manned Submersibles

Unmanned Vehicles

Time-Late

PISCES III Incident

APPENDICES:

I Conversion Factors

II Submersible Vehicle Safety Act

III SEA OTTER Pre - and Post - Dive Checklist

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS AND TERMS

CORPORATE INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX (facsimilar)

SUBJECT INDEX (hyperlinks)

ADDENDUM

No one submersible is designed to perform all the underwater tasks that may arise, but there is a commonality of vehicle performance requirements which may be found by analyzing past dives; these requirements are listed below.

VIEWING

Some means for external viewing is required. Viewports (windows) provide the easiest and most reliable solution, but their location and quantity are arbitrary and frequently dictated by other characteristics of the hull configuration. Acrylic plastic pressure hulls are available which can provide panoramic viewing. Television cameras are an adjunct to direct viewing and, with low light level amplification, may provide greater range and resolution. Optical viewing systems, e.g., periscope-type, have also been employed.

BUOYANCY

Archimedes’ principle defines the magnitude of upward buoyant force: any object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Three states of submersible buoyancy are desired: Positive, negative, and neutral. Displacement volume (D) determines the buoyant force, and buoyancy is expressed by the ratio W/D, i.e., weight of vehicle (W) to weight of displaced water. Buoyancy regulation under different vehicle load and water density conditions requires variable ballast systems which may include one or more of the following: Water ballast tanks, steel shot, gasoline filled tanks, or interconnected hard and soft containers.

TRIM

To correct unequal weight distribution along the longitudinal axis which might cause the vehicle to have an up and down angle from the horizontal, or to intentionally obtain such an up and down angle for the dive mission, a trim system is required. This system, through a variety of methods, acts to transfer weight or ballast forward or aft.

STABILITY

Stability is that property of a body that causes it, when disturbed from a conditional equilibrium, to develop forces that tend to restore it to its original condition. Equilibrium is a state of balance between opposing forces which may exists in three states: Stable, neutral, and unstable. For example, if when an angle is put on a ship forces are set up which act to reduce the angle, the ship is stable. Neutral equilibrium exists when a body remains in its displaced position after a force that displaced it is removed; unstable equilibrium exists when a body continues movement after a slight displacement. Stability in a submersible is intimately related to center of buoyancy and center of gravity. The center of buoyancy is the geometric center of volume of the displaced water. The center of gravity is the effective center of mass. These two centers are indicated as B and G, respectively, in Figure 2.3a. When a floating body is in a state of equilibrium, its center of buoyancy and center of gravity are in the same vertical line.

Fig. 2.3. Change of center of buoyancy metacenter during submergence.

of a vertical line through the center of buoyancy of a body floating upright and a vertical line through the new center of buoyancy when it is inclined a small amount as indicated by the letter M in Figure 2.3b.

When a surfaced submersible is tipped as shown in Figure 2.3b, the center of buoyancy moves from B to B1 because the volume of displaced water at the left of G has been decreased while the volume of displaced water to the right is increased. The center of buoyancy, being at the center of gravity of the displaced water, moves to point B1 and a vertical line through this point passes G and intersects the original vertical at M. The distance GM is known as the metacentric height. This illustrates a fundamental law of stability. When M is above G, the metacentric height is positive and the vessel is stable because a moment arm, GZ, has been set up which tends to return the vessel to its original position. It is obvious that if M is located below G, the moment arm would tend to increase the inclination. In this case, the metacentric height is negative and the vessel is unstable.

When on the surface, a submarine presents much the same problem in stability as a surface ship. However, differences are apparent as may be seen in the diagrams in Figure 2.3c, where the three points B, G, and M, though in the same relative position, are much closer together than is the case with surface ships.

As noted above, when a ship on the surface heels over, there is a shift in the position of the buoyancy center because of the volume shape change below the waterline. In the case of a submerged submarine, no such change takes place because all the volume of the submarine is below the surface of the water. Thus, for submerged stability, the center of gravity must be below the center of buoyancy.

During the process of going from the surfaced condition to the submerged condition, the center of gravity of the submarine, G, remains fixed slightly below the centerline of the boat while B and M approach each other. At complete submergence, G is below B, and M and B are at common point. These changes are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.3c.

As the ballast tanks fill, the displacement becomes less with the consequent rising of B and lowering of M. There is a point during submergence when B coincides with G. Due to the configuration of the upper part of the hull, B would only move a short distance from G if a list were taken at this point. In this condition, the stability is least; and the time spent at this low-righting stage must be minimal. When the ballast tanks are fully flooded, B rises to the normal center of buoyancy of the pressure hull, and stability is attained with G below B.

To keep the center of gravity low, batteries and other heavy items are carried as low as possible where they have the greatest effects on stability. Submersible transverse metacentric heights (submerged) are quite small and range from 3 to 12 inches.

POWER

Electric power is compatible with all propulsion, lighting, hotel, and virtually all instrument requirements and is the exclusive ultimate power source in all deep submersibles. Long duration power can be supplied from the surface through a cable, but at the expense of maneuverability; conversely, maneuverability is retained using self-contained batteries, with a corresponding limitation in operating time. Two power options predominate in shallow (less than 1,000-ft) submersibles: Manual power through the pressure hull

can be by direct mechanical linkage (limited to shallow depths owing to compression on the hull with consequent size reduction of thru-hull penetrations) or by hydraulics.

MANEUVERABILITY

The requirements for maneuverability vary considerably in speed and degree, but generally the vehicle is expected to be capable of controlled movement in the vertical and horizontal. For many if not all missions, the vehicle must be able to “hover” (dynamically or statically) at a given depth or distance above the bottom.

EXTERNAL ATTACHMENTS

Fro maximum mission adaptability, the vehicle should have external attachment points for installation of various instruments or devices to conduct undersea tasks. Since few, if any, of these instruments are standard in weight, size, shape, or mode of operation, a degree of flexibility in such attachment points is desirable. In the probable event that such devices will require electrical power and/or control, provisions must be made to spare electrical connectors and thru-hull penetrators..

LOCK-OUT/LOCK-IN

If the submersible is designed for transporting and supporting divers, provisions must be made for ballasting the vehicle when they leave (to restrain it from ascending) and deballasting when they return. Hatches and viewports in the diver’s compartment must be double-acting to resist not only external pressures, but internal pressures as well. Communications must be arranged between the diving compartment and the unpressurized part of the pressure hull; and, when surfaced, a means of providing food or medical aid must be incorporated in the design if decompression is required. Whereas the egress/ingress hatch will be on the keel of the submersible, and the vehicle might be bottomed during diver operations, space between the hatch and bottom must be sufficient to allow easy access to the hatch. Consideration must likewise be given to personnel transfer to a decompression chamber.

WEIGHT AND SIZE

The submersible’s dry-weight (in air) and physical dimensions will govern the methods of launch and retrieval as will as the size of its support ship and the methods available to it for land and air transport.

PAYLOAD

There are no minimum or maximum, payload standards, and they range from less than 100 pounds to several tons. The larger the payload requirements, the larger the vehicle size and, correspondingly, the greater the necessary support efforts become, with resultant lowered mobility. Trade-offs are possible whereby a non-essential manipulator, for example, might be replaced with another instrument or5a lock-out chamber replaced with a different module for a particular dive. Distribution of payload weight and balance must be considered to assure that vehicle trim and control are not jeopardized.

PRESSURE

A fundamental consideration in the design of any vehicle transporting man or equipment underwater is pressure. Pressure may be resisted, as it is by the submersible’s hull, or it may be compensated, as is the case with many battery packs, propulsion motors, etc. Once the submersible’s operating depth has been established, the pressure at that depth will determine the dimensional and compositional characteristics of the vehicle and its components.

Pressure in the ocean is a function of depth, and for routine oceanographic calculations the 33-foot depth is equal to about 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi). To moderate depths, say to several thousand feet, seawater may be considered incompressible and the following expression is used:

• p = pa + wh

where p is pressure in pounds per square inch (psi), pa is atmosphere pressure (psi), w is a 1.0-ft head of standard salt water equal to a pressure of 0.4447 psi and his depth in feet; then

• p = 14.7 + 0.444h psi

At greater depths, the compressibility of water must be considered and, to obtain a more accurate value, the density of seawater may be taken as varying linearly from 64 pcf at the surface to 66.6 pcf at 30,000 feet (Fig. 2.1). Neglecting atmosphere pressure, the pressure at depth h then is approximately

p = 0.444h + 0.3 (   h   )² psi (ref.1)
                                1,000

Hence, at 6,000 feet, the pressure on the surface of a body is 2,674.8 psi acting normal to every exposed surface.

SEAWATER CONDUCTIVITY

Various devices in submersibles, e.g., motors, batteries, pumps, are immersed in a protective liquid which serves as an ambient pressure compensator and an insulator against loss of power to seawater. The intrinsic dielectric conductivity of seawater is approximately 4 mhos/m (milliohms/meter) or 4,000 times greater than that of fresh water; and, it increases with temperature, salinity, frequency of the propagating wave and pressure (1). A common cause of failure in electrical systems is contamination of the compensating/insulating fluid by seawater, where as little as 0.1 percent contamination reduces the resistivity of some fluids below recommended limits (3). Various forms of corrosion (pit, crevice, stress, layer, etc.) Attack metals in seawater. Protective coatings and/or sacrificial anodes should be considered in the initial design stage.

TEMPERATURE

The temperature of seawater (Fig. 2.1) has, among others, two important effects on submersible diving: 1) The occupants must deal with extremes of temperature caused mainly by loss or gain of heat through the pressure hull; and 2) the pressure hull material must be capable of retaining its desirable characteristics (crack arrest) under cold temperatures encountered above and below the surface.

LIGHT

Sunlight has been observed to penetrate the ocean to depths as great as 2,300 feet (4), but usable sunlight for detailed external viewing generally terminates at 1,000 feet even under the very best conditions. Consequently, the submersible user must rely on artificial light sources for external illumination. Because of the lateral and vertical variability of light transmission properties and the frequent blinding effects of backscatter throughout the oceans, lighting for each diving mission is approached on a case-by-case basis.

Fig. 2.1 Seawater density, salinity, and temperature as function of ocean depth. {From Ref. (2)}

CURRENT

Currents in the ocean and contiguous waters range in horizontal speeds from less than 0.05 knot (Pacific deep water) to 15.5 knots (Skjerstadt Fjord, Norway), and they fluctuate rapidly both spatially and temporally (5). Where currents are strong, the submersibles must be able to maintain control and headway to conduct its task and maneuver safely.

DENSITY

Since seawater density varies not only with depth (Fig. 2.1), but with temperature and salinity as well, vehicle buoyancy calculations must be based on the specific diving location. In some instances, underwater discharge of fresh or brackish water near the bottom has caused significant loss of positive buoyancy on a submersible working close to the bottom (6).

ACOUSTICS

Light and radio waves attenuate rapidly in the ocean. Depending on the frequency of the signal and oceanographic conditions, sound waves may travel for thousands of miles. Sound, therefore, is used for communications between ship and submersible, for tracking of the submersible from the surface and for a variety of data collection instruments. The velocity of sound in seawater varies from 4,775 to 5,150 feet/second and increases with increasing temperature, salinity and pressure (5). If sound is traveling vertically downward, the effect of refraction (bending) is relatively slight; as the beam direction approaches the horizontal, refraction may become quite great. The usual situation (Fig. 2.2) is for sound speed to decrease initially with depth as the temperature decreases; hence, the upper part of the sound beam travels faster than the lower part and a shadow zone, into which the sound beam does not penetrate, is left near the surface. Such refraction may occur at any depth in the ocean; its effects can control the ranges from which a submersible can be tracked from its surface support and still maintain voice contact.

SEA STATE

The operational limits of submersibles’ launch/retrieval devices are determined by wave height (the vertical distance from wave trough to crest) and period (the time interval between successive crests passing a stationary point); the condition is generally termed Sea State, and its boundaries are presented in Table 2.1. Sea state, as defined in the accompanying table, is misleading as a measure of the ability of a launch/retrieval apparatus, for it does not take into account wave period. For example, launch/retrieval may be ruled out in low sea states if the period is on the order of 8 to 10 seconds, but, if the period is doubled or greater, the frequency of the wave crest’s passage is less and time may be sufficient to complete the hook-up of lift lines between successive crests. One must be aware that the sea surface is rarely calm and is in a constant state of change. If a submersible system is to

SPEED OF SOUND, (FT/SEC)

Fig. 2.2 Typical variation of speed of sound with depth in the ocean.

be economically practicable, the ability to deploy and recover the vehicle safely under average weather conditions is just as important as pressure hull integrity.

BOTTOM CONDITIONS

The ocean floor ranges in composition from soft, fine muds to hard rock cliffs; a submersible can be expected to operate within these ranges. During operations requiring a vehicle to transit near the bottom, search missions for example, the pilot generally prefers to “fly” just off the bottom, a few pounds negatively buoyant. This procedure makes vertical control of the submersible much easier. Over a rough, hard bottom, rugged skegs or other devices (wheels, skids,) are used to protect the pressure hull and other components. On a soft bottom the submersible may accumulate sediment, the weight of which can become great enough to restrain the vehicle from surfacing. ALUMINAUT, for example, accumulated approximately 4,000 pounds of sediment in this manner during an operation off the coast of Spain.

To accomplish its passenger-carrying and work functions economically, a submersible must be transportable, easily maintainable, and amenable to launch/retrieval from a rolling vessel. A review of submersibles in Chapter 4 reveals the varied approaches to these requirements. No matter what the approach, there are laws of physics and human biology which all successful vehicles must obey. There are also logistical and operational considerations which, because of their importance, are an integral part of the submersible diving system; these are its support platforms, and its launch/retrieval apparatus.

Five categories have been defined and include the design and operational factors with which the successful submersible operator must contend; these categories are:

1. Environmental Constraints
2. Vehicle Considerations
3. Human Considerations
4. Emergency Procedures
5. Support Requirements

The factors within these categories are drawn from the history of submersible operations and deal with the submersible system instead of the submersible as an independent operator. Inclusion of support requirements may seem outside the scope of submersible diving principles; but submersibles are not military submarines, and none routinely operates in the open sea without surface support and in the final analysis, shore support.

The most significant omission of submersible components in the the following chapters in the human component. The Deep Submersible Pilot Association and the Navy’s Submarine Development Group One have defined the minimal requirements for an operator or pilot. Chapter 12, herein, tabulates the number and types of operating and support personnel for selected vehicles. Unfortunately, all of these fall quite quite short in actually defining the nature and qualityies of the people who keep the system running efficiently and safely. Indeed, if one were to list the desirable attributes of a submersible crewman - and the crew includes support as well as operating personnel - the final product would seem unattainable.First, for the most part submersibles work far out at sea or in other isolated places where public admiration is not the rule. Secondly, photographers, press agents and media representatives are generally unaware of submersible activities until there is an emergency, and these are quite rare. Thirdly, working at sea in arduous, frustrating, continuous and, in the submersible business, calls for the skill of a seaman, an engineer, a diver and a master mariner. The point is that the personnel must be highly-skilled, dedicated individuals who are willing to spend a good portion of their life on a pitching, rolling, benevolent prison. The pay in not fantastic and residuals for television advertisements are unknown. One hundered percent successful missions are rare, and frustrating compromise is generally the rule.

So one might ask, where do you find such people and what do you offer? Quite frankly (and somewhat mysteriously), the find you and surmounting the challenge seems to be reward in itself. Commonality of background, such as education, technical training and the like, is not readily apparent. Most however, have spent a major portion of their adult life working with the sea, either in the Navy or with commercial enterprsies. Many, through various channels, simply drift into the submersible area, others specifically seek out the field. In either case, all have a capacity for hard work and seem to possess an unusually wide-ranging knowledge of seasmanship, diving, electronics and other skills related to submersibles. Admittedly it would be quite helpful to state the desirable background of characteristics to llok for in a submersible operator and the support crew, but, in the author’s experience, all are quite individualistic and, like submersibles themselves, defy categorization. Yet each seems to have a particular skill that contributes to a successful operation.

In this respect, an incident comes to mind of a lost current meter array retrieved by ALUMINAUT in 1967 off St. Croix, Virgin Islands. ALUMINAUT, at that time was the ultimate in deep submergence technology, it represented the best efforts of the best scientific and engineering expertise industry and academia could offer. In the course of retrieval it dived, made the necessary hookup and performed perfectly. The final step, however to reel the retrieving line onto the support ship. To complicate matters, when the array line began appearing at the surface it was a snarled and tangled mass of nylon rope, wire and current meters. At this point the knot-tying and load-handling talents of an ex-navy bosun, Mr. Doug Farrow, were required for several hours to successfully bring the spaghetti-like mess aboard.

The “manned” component, therefore, requires skills which range from those traceable to the Phoenicians to those developed in the scape age. Man’s ancestors, it is said, left the ocean in primordial times, since recorded history it is evident that he has tried, with some success, to return. In earluer days it was in wood and leather diving bells and suits; now it is in stell and plastic shells. Whatever the means, it has always been man; never machines, against the sea. The instruments, be they submersibles, submarines, towed devices or whatever, are inanimate, inert and functionless without the intervention of a human being. Regardless of its duration, if the return to the sea is to be successful, an arsenal of human talents must be drawn from pages of ancient and recent history. The know tier, the navigator, the mariner, the engineer and the theoretical scientist all share equal responsibilites and all can be found somewhere in the successful submersible system.

Conspicuous by its absence is any discussion of Soviet Bloc submersible design. The reason is quite simple: There is no easy way to authenticate what information is available. Mr. Lee Boylan of Informatics Inc., Rockville, Maryland summarized Soviet-bloc submersible development in a 1969 monograph for the Marine Technology Society Journal (v. 3, n .2) and updated this report in 1972 in the same Journal (v. 6, n. 5). Mr. Boylan’s original work was based on 206 acticles and reports from the Soviet Union and elsewhere. It is most comprehensive, but Boylan himself admits that his 45-year history does not comprise the entire Soiet Bloc. There are a few other articles which serve to reinforce Boylan’s tabulation, but the picture is still confusing.From those details that are available, Soviet submersible development and use have been primarily aimed at fisheries investigations. In 1957 the Soviets converted a fleet-type submarine into the fisheries research vehicle SEVERYANKA. Seven research cruise were conducted by this vehicle during the next few years. Then it appears to have been decommissioned in the early sixties.

At present, Russian, according to Boyland, has or has had four submersibles which followed SEVERYANKA; these are: The 6,562-ft SEVER 2, the 810-ft GVIDON, the 984-ft TINRO, and the DOREA for which no operating depth is state. International Hydrodynamaics of Canada is constructing a PISCES-class submersible (6,500-ft depth) and the lock-out vehicle ARIES (1,200-ft depth) for the Soviet Union for delivery sometime in 1974.

Admiittedly, this is making very short shrift of Soviet Bloc undersea efforts. Although they seem quite active in habitats and swimmer delivery (wet) vehicles, there is little information available on the actual submersible field. A report by V.S. Yastrebov, Head of the Laboratory of Underwater Research Technique, Academy of Sciences, USSR, tends to confirm that there is really very lettle to report is Soviet submersible activities. Yastrebov’s report (presented at the Brighton Oceanology International Conferences, 1972) compares the efficiency of divers and underwater devices. He speaks of an unmanned Soviet bottom crawler, CRAB, and of manipulator experiments at the Academy of Sciences, but every example of submersible performance he cites is of a U.S. vehicle. Furthermore, of 14 references in Yastrebov’s report, 11 are from U.S. sources. In another paper given at the Brighton Conferences, V.G. Azhazha of the Central Research Institute of Fisheries Information and Economics analyzed the efficiency of submersibles in fishery investigations. Here again, except for a brief mention of SEVERYANKA, all of the submersibles mentioned are U.S., English or Canadian. One is left to conclude, therefore, that Soviet-bloc at-sea submersible experience is quite limited, of a confidential nature, or both.

Throughout the text reference is made to a variety of books, articles and reports dealing with specific design aspects or operations of submersibles. For the reader who might be interested in only one vehicle or particular components of submersibles, the following books or reports, though referenced later, are noted:

GENERAL LISTINGS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF MANNED SUBMERSIBLES

• Terry, R.D. 1966 The Deep Submersible. Western Periodicals Co., North Hollywood, Caiif., 456 pp.
• Shenton, E.H. 1972 Diving for Science. W.W. Norton & Co., New York (describes the major components of submersibles in non-technical terms)

SPECIFIC SUBMERSIBLE DIVING HISTORY AND DESIGN

Beebe, W. 1934 Half Mile Down. Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York (contruction and diving history of the bathysphere)

• Piccard, A. 1954 In Balloon and Bathyscaphe. Cassell & Co. Ltd., London (FNRS-2 and TRIESTE 1)
• Houot, G.S. and Willhm, P.H. 1955 2,000 Fathoms Down. E.P. Dutton & Co., New York (FNRS-3)
• Cousteau, J.Y. 1956 The Living Sea. Harper & Row, New York (early history of SP-350)
• Piccard, J. and Dietz, R.S. 1960 Seven Miles Down. G.P. Putname’s Sons, New York (TRI-ESTE 1 and the events leading to its record dive)
• Shenton, E.H. 1968 Exploring the Ocean Depths. W.W. Norton & Co., New York (Scientific diving of SP-350)
• Piccard, J. 1971 The Sun Beneath the Sea. Charles Scribners’s Sons, New York (AUGUSTE PICCARD, BEN FRANKLIN, and the Gulf Stream Drift Mission)
• Link, M.C. 1973 Windows in the Sea. Smithsonian Instriution Press DEEP DIVER, JOHNSON-SEA-LINK, and other undersea activities of Mr. Edwin Link

The Woods Hole Oceanogrwaphic Institution beginning in 1960 issued yearly reports on the design, construction, operations and modifications to ALVIN. The first 2 years deal with ALUMINANT, which at that time was a cooperative venture between the Navy and Reynolds International, but from 1963 on through 1970 they deal only with ALVIN. These reports are entitled Deep Submergence Research and each covers a calendar year during the above period. Unfortunately they are not widely disseminated, but are available atat WHOI and may be found in university libraries where oceanographic courses are offered.. Careful reading of these is literally a course in deep submergence components and the painful progress of making a manned submersible a useful scientific tool. One of the deficiencies with most reports describing modifications to submersibles is that the author tells what has been changed but not why it was changed or what was the problem. The WHOI reports, on the other hand, provide all such details, and they explain each change in detail: Why each was made, what the component or system was lacking and how the new approach is intended to improve the vehicle, its support platform and its launch/retrieval system. They constitute, in substance, a technological stroll through deep submergence problems and developments of the sixties.

Another series of reports, also not readily available, are the handbooks issued by the U.S. Navy’s Deep Ocean Technology (DOT) Program. Recognizing the severe problems in various electrical and mechanical components in manned deep submersibles, the Navy began this program in the late sixties, and the results are profitable reading for both present and future submersibles operators and designers. The various components investigated can be seen in the list below. Each handbook summarizes the problems with available components, solutions to some problems and recommendations for surmounting others. The reports are limited in distribtuion to those who have a legitimate need for such data, and requests should be address to:

• Defense Documentation Center
  Cameron Station
  Alexandra, VA, 22314

As of 1974 the following handbooks have been issued which pertain manned submersibles.

• Handbook of Electric Cable Technology for Deep Ocean Application. NSRDL (A), 6-54/70, Nov. 1970. AD 877-774
• Rotary Shaft-Seal Selection Handbook for Pressure Equalized, Deep Ocean Equipment. NSRDC(A), 7-753, Oct. 1971. AD 889-330(L.)
• Handbook of Vehicle Electric Penetrators, Connectors and Harnesses for Deep Ocean Applications. NAVSEC, July 1971. AD 888-281.
• Handbook of Fluids and Lubricants for Deep Ocean Applications. NSRDC(A) MAT-LAB 360, Rev. 1972. AD AD 893-990.
• Handbook of Fluid Filled, Depth/Pressure Compensating Systems for Deep Ocean Applications. NSRDV(A) 27-8, April 1972. AD 894-795.
• Handbook of Electrical and Electronic Circuit-Interrupting and Protective Devices for Deep Ocean Applications. NSRDC(A), 6-67, Nov. 1971. AD 889-829.
• Handbook of Underwater Imaging System Design. NUC TP 303, July 1972 AD 904-472(L).

SUBMERSIBLE WORK AND INSTRUMENTS 

Excluding the DOT handbooks, all of the publications listed above contain accounts of various work performed by the particular submersibles. Additionally, the references in Chapter 11 relate specific work accomplishments by a variety of submersibles. Noteworthy, is reference (1) of Chapter 11, which summarized all of the published scientific accounts of submersible work through 1970. A popularized version of submersibles and their accomplishments is contained in:

• Soule, G. 1968 Undersea Frontiers.Rand McNally & Company, New York

The references in Chapter 11 also describe, to varying degrees, the instruments used to perform certain tasks. The best single reference for work tools is Winget’s report (ref. 6 Chap. 11) which not only describes a wide array of work tools, but also provides the manufacturer’s name and address for each component used in each device described. This report can only be described as a goldmine for the builder or designer of submersible work equipment.

Since the seventies most of the literature describing submersible work is relatively sparse. Perhaps because the work is no longer mainly scientific and may be considered proprietary information by the user. Virtually all recent accounts merely describe the job as pipeline inspection, cable burial, or the like, with details of the why, how and performance of the vehicle and tools omitted. Likewise, are accounts of submersible scientific endeavors sparse regarding performance of vehicles and instruments. Reports of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Manned Undersea Science and Technology Program relate what work was done, why and, when possible, its scientific implications, but nothing regarding the performance, problems or solution is including. Such omissions, though clearly a prerogative of the user, are unfortunately, because identifying and making known the problem areas of submersibles is the only means of providing direction or goals to the designer of future vehicles.

A number of terms herein will probably send the traditional submariner into a deep depression. With over a half century of tradition behind him, the military submariner has a ready-made field of jargon which quite appropriately applies to the military submarine. But, there is no traditional submersible and the jargon which has grown around this field comes from the aeronautical engineer, the scuba diver, the machinist, the scientist, the hobbyist and from the traditionalist himself. This variety is not surprising: With virtually all submersibles having been built and now being operated by the non-traditionalist, there is no uniformity in the terms used. This has been a hadicap to anyone in the field and is not likely to become one in the future. Indeed, as far as tradition is concerned, the operation of a manned submersible literally violates every tradition of the submarine service. Where bottoming or grounding a fleet submarine is to be avoided in all but dire emergencies, it is expected of submersibles. Where every attempt is made to keep a submarine’s lines hydrodynamically clean, there is absolutely no desire or need to do so in submersibles where speed is of little importance. A “long dive” in submersibles is 12 or so hours, to the nuclear submariner this would hardly classify as a dive. Then again, launching and retrieving a fleet submarine between dives is not only unthinkable, it is virtually impossible. So while the traditionalist might blanch, most of the jargon he will find distasteful is that which is in more or less common usage. A few examples might be in order.In some cases the term “broww” appears, this is not a typographical error, some vehicles (DEEPSTAR 4000) have a brow which over-hangs the forward viewport, it is synonymous with bow but with a specific kind of bow.

“Trim” is the means used by a submersible to either transfer weight or rearrange displacement forward or aft to incline the submerisble’s bow up or down. Trim in a submarine refers to arranging ballast such that the submarine is buoyantly stable at a particulr depth. Occassion the term “pitch” is synonymous with trim in submersibles.

“exostructure” herein refers to the structural framework external to the hull which supports the batteries, propulsion units and other components. Surrounding the exostructure may be a “fairing” which smooths out the envelope of the exostructure. Some manufacturers refer to the exostructure as the “framework” and fairings as the “skin.”

The term “operator” refers to the individual who controls the movements of the submersible and it is synonymous with “pilot”. Initially the term pilot was used and was quite descriptive, but in the late sixties the U.S. Navy introduced the term operator when it invoked certification for the operator(s). i.e., pilots, of submersibles. As long as the term operator has remained within the military it served the purposed, but in the private sector a submersible can be and quite frequently is owned by one company, operated by another and piloted by an employee of the operating company. The dilemma, therefore of the, is apparent when one speaks of the operator of the submersible, is it the firm or the individual? When this confusion looms, the term polit is used to distinguish the individual from the foirm.

Many other terms are used which are generally explained within the text, but the best appreciation for the diversity from vehicle-to-vehicle can be gained by noting the different names given to components on the schematics in Chapter 4. The names given to various submersible components are those used by the owners or operators. While it might be taxonomically satisfying to relabel these compoents with the same terms, one might find it difficult to communicate with the owner whose vehicle has been redesignated.

Finally, we arrive at units of measurement or, more precisely, the metric system versus the English system. Quite evident is the fact that nothing has been hone herein to advance the metric system. Recognizing the practicality of it over the the English system, the conversion of the many values from the latter into the former represents a job of considerable magnitude and leads to stange dimensions. A 6-foot diameter pressure hull would become one of 1.83 meters and still not be an exact measurement. So to simplify matters, where the original data are in meteres, it is so reported, and where feet and inches are used, they are given. And, as a final apology, a table to convert the various units is included in Appendix I.

It would seem to be a relatively simple task to state what a vehicle’s status is - i.e., it is either operational or not operational. But, in reality, a vehicle’s status may be quite difficult to define accurately. ALUMINAUT is a typical example. It is now in storage in Florida and has not dived since 1969. This does not mean, however, that it cannot or will not dive again. If a sufficient profitable contract were to appear for ALUMINAUT, its owners probably would take it out of storage and put it to work. PC-38 or TECHDIVER is another example; it hasn’t dived for a number of years, but again, under the right financial climate, it undoubtedly could be induced to operate. Some of the shallow vehicles, such as the NAUTILETTE series, only dive in the summer months when the weather on the Great Lakes is amiable; in the winter they are in storage. A few vehicles are on display in museums or parks, others have been cannibalized to a point where they are now in bits and pieces and scattered in backyards. So, in some cases it is quite easy to place them in either the operating or non-operating category. Those vehicles not clearly in either category are classed as inactive. Specifically, the following definitions are used in this work:

• Operational:
  • Submarsibles which have been reported diving in 1974, including vehicles which are undergoing test and evaluation and those which are undergoing modifications preparatory to diving

• Inactive:
  • Submersibles which, within a 2- or 3-month period or less, can be made operational. ALUMINAUT, GUPPY, OPSUB, TECHDIVER are examples of this category.

• Non-Operational:
  • Submersibles that are incapable of operating with major refitting.

To limit the scope of this book the following defines a manned submersible: A manned, non-combatant craft capable of independent operations on and under the water’s surface which has its own propulsion power and a means of direct viewing for the occupants who are embarked within a dry atmosphere.This definition precludes underwater habitants which have no independent means of propulsion, swimmer delivery vehicles which are not “dry” and diver support or delivery chambers which are tethered to the surface. By definition the tethered vehicles KUROSHIO II, GUPPY, and OPSUB should not be included, but here is another gray area. KUROSHIO II and its predecessor KUROSHIO I have been a part of submersible history since 1960; to omit them would serve no particular purpose and would deny their significant role in undersea exploration. Having made this exception GUPPY and OPSUB must be included by default.

Throughout these pages reference is made to the “Submersible System;” this system includes not only the submersible, but a ship or surface craft to support it and an apparatus for putting it in and taking it out of the water. Attention is drawn to Figure 1.1 wherein the submersible system is graphically portrayed beginning with its most basic component: The human. The importance of this “system” concept is dealt with in Chapter 2 and 12.

A Field in Flux

In a certain sense this section should be entitled “An Apology” because its message is to warn the reader that the vehicle descriptions in Chapter 4 are, to varying degrees inaccurate. There are two primary reasons for these inaccuracies:

1. Many of the vehicles are no longer in existence and both the participants and the records often are unavailable for authenticating what data is available, and
2. The dynamics of the submersible industry.

The first reason needs little else in the way of explanation, but the second requires elaboration.

Submersibles, like any other capital equipment, can change owners, and a new owner may change not only its design, but its name as well. For example, the 1970 Perry-built PC-9 (a Perry designation number) was originally christened Survey Sub I by its owners Brown and Root. In 1973, Taylor Diving Services acquired the vehicle and renamed it TS-1. Another Perry vehicle PC-2 was built in 1972 by Perry Submarine Builders for Access of Toronto and was later christened TUDLIK. In about 1973 the vehicle was transferred back to Perry in Florida and reverted back to PC-2. In 1974 it was purchased by Sub Sea Oil Services of Milan; its name has not yet changed, but this may soon happen. Artic Marine’s SEA OTTER was originally PAULO I and belonged to Anautics Inc. of San Diego. In 1974 it was purchased by Candive of Vancouver B.C. and subsequently leased on a long-term basis to Artic Marine which renamed it SEA OTTER. While upgrading its operating depth from 600 to 1,500 feet. In some instances the same owner may retain the vehicle, but it dives under a variety of aliases. For example Cousteau’s DIVING SAUCER is, to the French reader, LA SOUCOUPE PLONGEANTE (this name was also used at times in the U.S.), and in the course of its history it was occasionally called DENICE (after Cousteau’s wife), DS-2 and SP-300. In 1970 the same vehicle was upgraded in depth from 300 to 350 meters and became SP-250.

Such name changes have occurred with a number of vehicles, and produce a quandary concerning which one to use and what it is now. Strictly fro convenience, the names used herein are the ones with which the author is most familiar. The other aliases are given under “Remarks” in the individual listings in Chapter 4.

A change of owners generally produces a change in the vehicle. Mention was made of increasing the operating depth of SP-250 and SEA OTTER. This is only one source of error in any set of “current” descriptions. The original SURVEY SUB 1 or TS-1 had port and starboard vertical thrusters mounted amidships, the “new” TS-1 has shock absorbers where the vertical thrusters once were (they are now fore and aft). It also has increased life support duration, a different lift padeye, and an expanded suite of operating and surveying equipment. This is only one of many examples where the vehicle has changed by virtue of a new owner, new tasks of different operating philosophies. In regards to changing operating philosophies, the first five or six Perry vehicles used Baralyme as a carbon dioxide scrubbing chemical now Perry uses lithium hydroxide and has replaced the Baralyme in some other earlier vehicles with lithium hydroxide. In some cases almost the only thing remaining from the original vehicle is the pressure hull. AUGUSTE PICCARD, for example, is described herein as it was when first constructed. It is presently undergoing extensive modification for open-ocean surveying and except for the pressure hull and propulsion, will bear little resemblance to the original.

In other instances inaccuracies are introduced by virtue of changes occurring from the vehicle-as-constructed to the vehicle-as-operated; those changes can be substantial. The operating and design details of DEEP QUEST in Chapter 2 were originally obtained from a 1968 description of the vehicle. Mr. R. K. R. Worthington, DEEP QUEST’s Operating Manager, kindly reviewed this chapter and made numerous and critical changes to reflect DEEP QUEST as it now operates. Where a particular submersible has always operated for the same organization and under the same individual, such changes have been relatively easy to identify. But, when it has changed hands or the principals involved in the operations and readiness have been replaced (as is the case with the military submersibles), it is a research project in itself to ascertain the many modifications which have taken place on merely one vehicle.

In short, the descriptions and operating details of the submersibles herein reflect them at some time in their life - though every effort has been made to be as up-to-date as possible, Dimensional characteristics, such as length, height, width, weights, operating equipment,, safety devices, propulsion arrangements and other features are all subject change which, except for those vehicles no longer operating, is probably continuous. For a first approximation the descriptions are valid, but if precise details are desired, one should contact either the current operator or operating manager. In the course of the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office’s submersible leasing program, it was quickly revealed (sometimes with chagrin) that the marketing arms of large corporations were quite often ignorant of changes to the vehicle which the operators performed.

The future of manned submersibles is not beyond a description of vehicles now under construction or about to be built. Not that the future looks dim; on the contrary, it looks fantastic. But it looked fantastic once before and then fell on its face. Predicting or even speculating on the course of future events in this area is a difficult proposition. For example, while gathering data for this book, a visit was made to Perry Submarine Builders in March 1973. At that time the Perry Company had just released a good number of its employees and was re-trenching owing to lack of business. The future, for Perry at least, looked rather bleak. On a subsequent visit in April 1974, the Perry workshops were a beehive of activity, and negotiations were underway to relocate and construct facilities that could handle the incredible volume of new business.So, predictions on the future will be left to the more courageous. Also omitted is any effort to predict the application of new materials, components, instruments or power supplies. What has been and is being done in manned submersibles constitutes the primary subject of this work.

As one could anticipate, there are some shades of gray, and they color vehicles whose construction was started (e.g. ARGYRONETE, DEEPSTAR 20000) but halted before completion. Such vehicles are included because they are a part of history and represent the thoughts of various deep submergence participants at that time. So, in the engineer’s jargon, credentials to this book are simply that steel has been cut.

There are others benefits to be gained in looking backwards, if we look to the periphery being the activities or operational methods of others and their approach to submersible diving. In this respect the subject of safety and emergency devices comes to mind. Chapter 14 relates at some length the devices and equipment carried on individual submersibles to avoid and to respond to emergencies. This listing is not presented with the inferred message that the submersible operator “must” have all of these provisions if he is to operate safely. It is given instead, as something to be considered. A requirement for distress rockets, radio homing beacons and the like may be overreacting for the submersible working in a dam or Lake Geneva, but if the same vehicle moves its operations to the open sea they then warrant consideration.

Likewise, there are the different approaches to ballasting, maneuvering, life support and launch/retrieval. By reviewing the many different means to the same ends, the operator may find an idea or a different arrangement to increase the capabilities and/or performance of his vehicle.

There are, unfortunately, many stumbling blocks in trying to categorize and force order on such a free-wheeling dynamic and wide-spread activity. In some cases the subject refuses to be pigeon-holed, terms must be introduced which are arbitrary, modifications to the vehicle make near-current descriptions inaccurate, and many loose ends are left. To deal with these problems, this chapter is devoted to alerting the reader to nature of such pitfalls, omissions and inconsistencies. Other subjects will be discussed which, by their rebellious nature, are only satisfied with a separate discussion or constant reiteration.

Some four centuries before the birth of Christ, Aristotle wrote of small “diving bells” used by sponge divers who regularly worked at depths of 75 to 100 feet. The bells were inverted bowls weighted down by stones. The divers would stick their heads in them to replenish their air without surfacing. The air in the bells, in turn was re-supplied by weighted skins filled air and lowered from the surfaced.In 1620 A.D. a Dutchman, Cornelius van Drebel, is said to have constructed a submersible under contract to King James I of England. It was operated by 12 rowers, with leather sleeves waterproofing to oar-ports. Cans containing some “secret substance” (soda lime?) were opened periodically to purify the air. It is said the craft navigated the Thames River at depths of 12 to 15 feet for several hours.

In 1707 Dr. Edmund Halley (of Halley’s Comet fame) built a diving bell with a limited “lock-out” capability. It had glass ports above to light the inside of the bell, provisions for replenishing its air and crude, umbilically-supplied diving helmets which permitted divers to walk around outside - so long as they didn’t lower their heads below the water level in the bell!

In the late 1770’s Connecticut Yankee Dr. David Bushnell built and operated a small wooden submarine designed to attach mines to and blow up British warships. After several abortive attempts, TURTLE, as the vehicle was named, did account for one enemy schooner.

In the early 1800’s Robert Fulton (inventory of the steamship) built two iron-framed, copper-skinned submarines, NAUTILUS and MUTE. The former carried out successful military tests against moored targets for both France’s Napoleon Bonaparte and the British. Neither craft was ever used operationally, however.

The first “modern” submersible - it could be argued - was Simon Lake’s ARGONAUT FIRST, a small clumsy-looking vehicle launched shortly before 1890. Made of wooden planks and waterproofed with pitch, it was powered by a gasoline engine snorkeled flexible hose, and it boasted blowable ballast tanks - the first submarine to do so. In addition, it sported powered wheels and a bottom hatch that could be opened - after the interior was pressurized to ambient - to permit the hand recovery of bottom sample, including oysters.

These are just a few examples of the long history and the nature of man’s early technological efforts to function effectively within the ocean environment. While Simon Lake in the part of the 20th century did develop a submersible salvage, including submersible barges, and managed to recover a cargo of anthracite coal from the bottom of Long Island Sound, the manned submersible was not to emerge as a diverse and functional means of accomplishing useful underwater work for over half a century, which brings us to where this work commences.

In 1965 a delegation from the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office journeyed to Lantana, Florida to evaluate John Perry’s CUBMARINE as an undersea surveyor.

The “evaluation,” to say the least, was cursory and strongly resembled a used car purchase. The team (headed by the author) gazed astutely at the tiny, yellow craft from various angles, rapped its steel hull for toughness, caressed its sides from smoothness and sat inside to see if they fit. A few hours later the team leader had the opportunity to dive in the (now pronounced) “sound” vehicle for an operational evaluation. This was predictable: One could see out of it, the seats were hard and there wasn’t much room. But, what else could the amateur do? Had it been possible, we probably would have taken a bite out of it.

Since the mid-sixties hundreds of scientific and technical articles have appeared describing the design and materials of what are now called manned submersibles. Several books have been published that relate the activities of specific vehicles. As a result, the industrious student can - with patients and a comprehensive library - become quite familiar with the history, jargon, design and operations of submersibles and need not feel like a technological ignoramus on his first encounter.

Unfortunately, as the new student soon learns, there is no single point of reference from which to begin an education. The information is available, but it is so scattered that merely accumulating an adequate bibliography is a chore, and in the course of assembling this data, the field itself is moving at so rapid a pace that most vehicle descriptions are in error within a time of their publication.

Adding to the consternation is the jargon; many of the terms used to describe manned submersibles, such as “trim,” “blow,” “vent,” came directly military submarines, but “viewports,” “mechanical arms,” “claws,” and others terms are unique to the submersibles. Indeed “manned submersibles” is not used with consistency. “Undersea Vehicles,” “Deep Research Vehicles,” “Deep Submergence Vehicle,” “Mini Subs,” “Submersible Vessel,” even “Submarinos” are syno